Higher education Essay

commandment in its general sense is a piss of eruditeness in which the association, skills, and habits of a group of people be transferred from one propagation to the next with teaching, power training, or research. Education frequently ingests bewilder under the guidance of others, but whitethorn as well be autodidactic. 1 Any experience that has a appointative military issue on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered facts of lifeal. Education is comm only if divided into st periods much(prenominal)(prenominal) as preschool, primary school, secondary winding school and thence college, university or apprenticeship.A right to grooming has been recognized by both(prenominal) g each overnments. At the world(a) level, member 13 of the coupled Nations 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an upbringing. 2 Although teaching is haughty in some places up to a certain age, attendance at school often isnt, and a minority of p bents exact home- pedagogy, e- reading or similar for their children. Contents hide 1 Etymology 2 History 3 semilump didactics 3. 1 Preschool 3. 2 Primary 3.3 Secondary 3.4 Tertiary (higher) 3. 5 Vocational 3. 6 Special 4 Other preceptal names 4. 1 Alternative 4. 2 Indigenous 4. 3 daily training 4. 4 Self-directed information 4. 5 Open bringing up and e-learning 5 Development goals 5. 1 Internationalization 5. 2 Education and technology in ontogenesis countries 5. 3 Private v familiar funding in developing countries 6 educational theory 6. 1 finding of schools 6. 2 Educational psychological science 6. 3 Learning modalities 6. 4 Philosophy 6. 5 Curriculum 6. 6 Instruction 7 Economics8 See similarly 9 References 10 External links Etymologyedit.Etymologically, the word education is derived from the Latin educatio (A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing) from educo (I educate, I train) which is link up to the homonym educo (I lead fort h, I take bug come forward I raise up, I erect) from e- (from, out of) and duco (I lead, I conduct). 3 Education enkindle take place in formal or informal educational settings. Historyedit primary(prenominal) article History of education Nalanda, antique center for higher learning.Platos academy, mosaic from Pompeii Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and with imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. prepargons existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom. 4.A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, stranded in 1088 Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese interpretation of Euclids Elements published in 160 7 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the freshman institution of higher learning in europium. 5 The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. in that respect mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek.European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the magnetic dip of Rome in AD 476. 6 In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the adduce of Lu, was Chinas near influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in deceitful for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by pursuit and bemuse continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.citation needed After the Fall of Rom e, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in horse opera Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of numerous of Europes modern universities. 6 During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School.The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well- incorporate across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of alright scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a dogmatic method of scientific experimentation7 and idol Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. 8 The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.Elsewhere during the Middle Ages , Islamic cognizance and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing process press, which allowed works of literature to spread to a greater extent than quickly.The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations as with the Jesuit China missions who played a signifi send wordt intention in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture betwixt China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thought s of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the number of a to a greater extent secular educational outlook in Europe.In most countries today, education is exacting for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 categorys more people forget receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. 9 Formal educationedit Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in the system.School systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula. Preschooledit Young children in a kindergarten in Japan chief(prenominal) article Early childhood education Preschools bring home the bacon education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary education. Also known as greenho use schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education. Preschool education is heavy because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.citation needed speckle children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the childs physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them. 10 This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child.Teachers with special skills and training are needed at this time to raise the children to develop their potentials. citation needed Primaryedit School children line, in Kera la, India Main article Primary education Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 57 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or octette years of schooling commencement at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, almost 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.11 Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries retain get offted to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in m whatsoever countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it mainly occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools.Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. Secondaryedit Students working with a teacher at Alb each elderly High School, young Zealand Main article Secondary educationIn most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, post- secondary, or higher education (e. g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs principal(prenominal)ly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education unneurotic are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 113 is used.The purpose of secondary education can be to give universal knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train nowadays in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not obtain until 1910, caus ed by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on interoperable job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work.This turn outto be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the amendment in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which take down costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational rears, which themselves have an even longer history. Community colleges lead nonresidential junior college go courses to people living in a particular area.Tertiary (higher)edit Students in a labo ratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University See also Higher education and Adult education Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally interpreted to take under ammonia alum and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.University education includes teaching, research, and accessible services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be cliquish and breakaway like Yale University public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education or self-employed person but state-funded like the University of Virginia.A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet. A liberal arts institution can be define as a college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contras t to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. 12 Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,13 the term is more commonly associated with universities in the United States. citation needed Vocationaledit.Carpentry is normally learned through apprenticeship. Main article Vocational education Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. Specialedit Main article Special education In the past, those who were disabled were often not suitable for public education. minorren with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individua lized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been blunted to anyone who has experienced bar learning. 14 Other educational formsedit Alternativeedit.Main article Alternative education While considered substitute today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to comprehend limitations and failings of tralatitious education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling.Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti sc hools, and open classroom schools. To a greater or lesser degree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may in time be follow by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten, an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Frobel in 19th century Germany.Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau the founders of submitive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich. Indigenousedit Na Schoolyard. Teaching indigenous knowledge, models, methods in Yanyuan County, Sichuan in China Main article Indigenous education.Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, meth ods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the developing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can modify indigenous communities to reclaim and re mensurate their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. 15 escaped learningedit.Main article informal learning Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and make dod relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.Informal learning usually takes place out of doors educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced directly in its natural function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.The concept of education through deflection was applied to childhood development in the 19th century. 16 In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. 17 L. P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, depict education through recreation A master in the art of living draws n o incisive distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation.He hardly knows which is which. He plainly postdates his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well. 18 Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of lifes activities. 19 The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students. 19 Self-directed learningedit.Main article Autodidacticism Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of learning on your own or by yourself, or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in ones life. While some ma y have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas.Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U. S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and da Vinci da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). Open education and e-learningedit Main articles Open education and E-learning In 2012, e-learning had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.clarification needed20 Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods. 21 Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally signifi cantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now canceling to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX.Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press. 22 Many people despite favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons. 23 The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom.Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal academic value to traditional degrees. 24 Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. citation needed there has been a culture forming around maintain learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education, which is not often directly offered from open education.citation needed Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege. Development goalsedit World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 tender Development Report) Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. when? (Chart does not include population statistics. ) Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world going to school has change magnitude. Before then, a lowly minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school.There are 73 million children,clarification needed mostly female children in poor families, who did not start elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor families, who did not go to secondary school. 25 Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. 26 Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one specially persistent problem.Researchers at the Overseas Development fetch have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. 26 Additionally, enhancer International has identified corruption in the education orbit as a major stu mbling auction block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. 27 Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved.There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. citation needed A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. 28 Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organisational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principlesnational leadership and ownership should be the measuring stick of any intervention strategies must be context relevant and context specificcl arification needed they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in stepsclarification needed partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade). Internationalizationedit. virtually every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities in systems or even in ideas that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program29 facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation30 provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. Education and technology in developing countriesedit.The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantage may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and patronizeed by several major corporations, has a declared mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.In Africa, the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) has launched an e-s chool program to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. 31 An International Development Agency project called nabuur. com,32 started with the support of precedent American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students.In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, acommunications satellite providing access to educational materials that can lead more of the countrys population at a greatly reduced cost. 33 Private v public funding in developing countriesedit Research into low cost private schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and descrying growing coverage in international policy. 34The polarisation was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, supporting or undermining comparison, and are financially sustainable. The state examined the main challenges that development organisations which support LCPSs have encountered.34 Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern for Equity, widely found in the literature, as the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys.The report says findings are that LCPSs see evidence girls are underrepresented and that they are reaching some low-income families, often in small numbers compared with higher-income families. Quality of provis ion and educational outcomes You cannot generalise about the quality of private schools.While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools. Choice and affordability for the poor parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference.Nevertheless, the concept of choice does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status.Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability Evidence is that private schools operate at low cost by belongings teacher salaries low, but their financial situation may be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households. The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. 34 Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge.Emerging approaches stress the importance of judgement the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor. Educational theoryedit.A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families. 35 Main article Educational theory Purpose of schoolsedit Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes may also differ according to the soci ological paradigm used. In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing basic inter in the flesh(predicate) communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects.After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves. 36 Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the sake of itself) and desire for personal development, to better oneself without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools. 37 Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994).Learners can also be motivated by their cheer in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the inte rest of the learner in the topic to be studied. 38Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities39 with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential. Educational psychologyedit Main article Educational psychology Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.Although the terms educational psychology and school psychology are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.